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1997; Darwall 2002c; Murphy, Kallenberg and Nation
1997; Statman 1997; Zagzebski 2004
Euthyphro dilemma see dilemma, Euthyphro
evidentialism: Evidentialism is the epistemological theory that
the epistemic justification of a belief depends on the evi-
dence one has for it. John Locke developed an influential
version of the theory with his claim that belief should
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56 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHY A Z
always be proportioned to the evidence. Advocates of the
view differ as to the level of evidence required to make a
belief rational and the extent to which one must possess or
grasp the evidence as opposed to knowing some who do
(or did). But, wherever the evidence resides, evidentialists
commonly assume that such evidence must have a public,
demonstrable component. Evidentialism is closely aligned
with classical foundationalism, and has often been used
as a means to judge religious belief as irrational.
See Clifford, William Kingdon; epistemology; episte-
mology, Reformed; epistemology, religious; faith; fideism;
foundationalism; reason
Further reading: Audi 2003; Konyndyk 1986; Wykstra
1989
evil, problem of: The problem of evil occurs in many forms.
Philosophical discussion has eschewed the practical and
pastoral problems of evil, and concentrated on the logical
and evidential/probabilistic problems. The logical prob-
lem of evil is the problem that it appears that the proposi-
tion that evil exists logically implies the proposition that
God does not exist. The argument goes roughly thus:
1. Evil exists.
2. If God exists then he will prevent all evil that he can
prevent and knows about, thanks to his perfect good-
ness.
3. If God exists then he can prevent all evil that he knows
about, thanks to his omnipotence.
4. If God exists then he knows about all evil that exists,
thanks to his omniscience.
5. God does not exist.
Many Christian philosophers have striven to show that
appearances deceive here, and that the argument is not
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CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHY A Z 57
logically sound. There are two broad defences against
the argument, both denying (2): the free-will defence and
the greater-good defence. The free-will defence takes its
lead from Augustine s early works. Its leading contem-
porary exponent is Alvin Plantinga, who claims that, for
all we know, God cannot create a world in which every-
body freely refrains from evil. Moreover, a world in which
some people freely do good and some do evil may well be
better than one in which everybody is forced to do good.
The greater-good defence takes its lead from Irenaeus.
Its leading contemporary exponent is John Hick, who
claims that suffering evil is necessary to make our souls
adult souls rather than childish, immature souls. In other
words, we should be spiritually impoverished if we did
not have the experience of struggling through adversity.
The evidential or probabilistic problem of evil is the prob-
lem that the proposition that evil exists makes more
likely the proposition that God does not exist. Debate
has ranged furiously over the past thirty years or so over
who bears the burden of proof: the Christian philoso-
pher to explain why it s quite likely that God permits
evil or the atheist to explain why it isn t likely. There
are various refined versions of the problem of evil, such
as the problem of natural evil (suffering not inflicted by
humans), the problem of horrendous evils (addressed in
particular by Marilyn McCord Adams), and the problem
of why God allowed the fall (that is, the first sin of his
creatures).
See Adams, Marilyn McCord; Augustine of Hippo;
defence, free-will; defence, greater-good; goodness, per-
fect; Hick, John; Irenaeus; omnipotence; omniscience;
Plantinga, Alvin
Further reading: Adams, Marilyn McCord 1999; Hick
1977; Lewis, C. S. 1940; Plantinga 1974a; Rowe 2001;
Swinburne 1998; Whitney 1998
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58 CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHY A Z
evolution: Evolution generally describes any gradual pro-
cess of change. It is used more specifically to describe
any theory that explains biological diversity through
gradual change derived from initial commonality. There
have been many theories of this type (for example,
Lamarckianism). Finally, it is used to refer to Charles
Darwin s theory of evolutionary development through
natural selection, a picture that was later completed with
the discovery of genetics and thus the mechanism of inher-
ited random mutations. Scientists and philosophers dis-
agree sharply on the propriety of extending Darwinian
theory to explain non-biological spheres including human
psychology and social and economic relationships. One
particularly contentious issue concerns eugenics: if we are
evolving is it not licit, even morally obligatory, to take
control of our own evolution? Philosophically, evolution
raises a number of issues including the viability of tradi-
tional conceptions of creation and original sin. Another
hotly debated issue in the science and religion arena is
whether evolution is inherently dysteleological such that
no agent, not even God, can direct the random muta-
tions that occur, or whether God could be providentially
directing each step of the process.
See creation; design, intelligent; science; science and re-
ligion; sin
Further reading: Beilby 2002; Dennett 1996; Haught
2000; Hull 2001; Melsen 1965; Midgley 2002
existentialism: A diverse philosophical movement, existen-
tialism is characterised by a stress on the individual, free-
dom of choice and, in many cases, the absurdity of the
universe. Kierkegaard is usually thought of as the first
existentialist; he led a reaction against the abstract ratio-
nalism of Hegel s philosophy instead of focusing on the
absolute consciousness Kierkegaard wanted to focus on
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CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHY A Z 59
the subjective and personal side of the life of the individ-
ual. The movement is called existentialism because of
the special use of the word existenz ( existence ) to de-
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